A Second Passport or Residency — Managed End to End
From Caribbean citizenship in under six months to EU Golden Visas with a path to a European passport — we identify the right programme for your goals and manage every step of the process, from investment selection to approval. You deal with us; we deal with everything else.
One firm. The whole process.
Programme Selection
We map your goals — travel, tax planning, EU access, business flexibility — against every active programme to identify the right fit. This is not a one-size-fits-all decision.
Investment Coordination
Whether you are buying qualifying real estate, subscribing to a fund, or making a government contribution, we identify compliant opportunities and coordinate the investment process with our partner network.
Full Application Management
We handle document preparation, notarisation, apostilles, translation, due diligence files, and application submission. Our legal partners in each jurisdiction manage the local process. You review and sign; we do the rest.
Due Diligence Preparation
Every CBI and most RBI programmes require background checks on the applicant. We prepare a clean due diligence file in advance — identifying and resolving anything that could delay or derail an application.
Family Members
Most programmes allow spouses, children, and in some cases parents and siblings to be included. We handle the full family application, ensuring all dependants are correctly registered.
Post-Approval Support
Once approved, we help with banking introductions, tax planning in the new jurisdiction, and — where applicable — managing the residency requirements needed to convert to citizenship.
Citizenship by Investment Programmes
These programmes grant full citizenship — and a new passport — directly in exchange for a qualifying investment or contribution. Processing times range from around 45 days (Vanuatu) to roughly 6–9 months for the Caribbean programmes.
Antigua and Barbuda
Antigua and Barbuda's CBI programme offers four investment routes, starting from USD 230,000 for a family of up to four. Direct citizenship in 3–6 months, with visa-free access to 154+ destinations including the UK, Schengen Area, and Canada. No residency requirement beyond 5 days in the first 5 years.
Dominica
Dominica's citizenship by investment programme offers one of the most affordable entry points in the Caribbean — EDF donations from USD 200,000 for a single applicant — combined with some of the fastest processing at 2–3 months. This comprehensive guide covers both investment routes, passport access, due diligence standards, family inclusion, and the value proposition that keeps Dominica at the top of Caribbean CBI rankings.
Egypt
Egypt's Citizenship by Investment programme offers four qualifying routes, starting from USD 250,000. Direct citizenship is granted within 6–12 months. No residency requirement, no Arabic language test, and dual citizenship is now fully permitted.
Grenada
Grenada's citizenship by investment programme has one feature no other Caribbean CBI programme can match: an E-2 Treaty with the United States dating from 1989. Grenadian citizens can apply for a US E-2 Treaty Investor Visa, providing a route to live and work in the USA. NTF route from USD 235,000.
India
The Overseas Citizen of India (OCI) card gives People of Indian Origin lifelong multiple-entry access to India plus the right to work, invest, and own most property there — without being citizens. Essential for Indian-origin British nationals who have surrendered their Indian passport, it is the primary mechanism for maintaining a meaningful India connection after naturalisation abroad.
Full programme details
Jordan
Jordan's citizenship by investment programme offers a direct route to Jordanian nationality through several active investment routes — from productive business investment to share purchase and job creation. A July 2025 overhaul phased out passive options such as treasury bonds and bank deposits. Processing is among the fastest for any citizenship programme at 3–6 months, no residency is required, and Jordanian citizenship carries significant strategic value in the Arab world even with a modest visa-free travel ranking.
Mauritius
Mauritius offers a credible pathway to citizenship through naturalisation for long-term investors and residents who meet residence, investment, and character requirements under the Mauritius Citizenship Act.
North Macedonia
North Macedonia's citizenship by investment programme offers direct citizenship for €200,000 invested in a private investment fund, with no residency requirement and a processing time of 4–6 months. The Macedonian passport provides Schengen visa-free access — its most significant practical benefit — and the country's EU candidate status raises the possibility of future EU membership. We present a balanced assessment of this relatively new programme.
Paraguay
Paraguay offers one of South America's most affordable residency-to-citizenship pathways, with a three-year constitutional naturalisation period. Note that the old USD 5,000 direct-permanent-residency deposit was abolished in 2022 — applicants now begin with temporary residency or use an investment route.
Saint Lucia
Saint Lucia's citizenship by investment programme, established in 2015, offers four investment routes including a non-interest-bearing government bond option that returns the capital after five years. Visa-free access to 145+ countries.
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
A guide to Saint Vincent and the Grenadines' planned citizenship by investment programme, confirmed in the February 2026 Budget for launch by mid-2026, including the expected donation and real estate routes, residency mandate, passport strength, and key considerations for prospective applicants.
Full programme details
Samoa
A detailed guide to Samoa's citizenship by investment programme, including investment options, passport strength across the Pacific and beyond, eligibility requirements, and a candid assessment of programme risks for prospective applicants.
Full programme details
St Kitts and Nevis
St Kitts and Nevis launched the world's first citizenship by investment programme in 1984. Forty years on, it remains one of the strongest, with visa-free access to 157+ countries, a rigorous due diligence reputation, and a SISC contribution route from USD 250,000.
St Lucia
St Lucia's CBI programme is notable for its government bonds route — the only Caribbean CBI pathway that returns the investor's capital after a five-year hold. NEF donation route from USD 240,000 and real estate at USD 300,000 are also available. Visa-free access to 146+ countries.
Turkey
Turkey's citizenship by investment programme grants full Turkish citizenship within three to six months of a qualifying investment — no residency requirement, no language test, no interview. The property route requires a minimum investment of $400,000 with a three-year hold period. The Turkish passport provides visa-free access to approximately 114 countries, but does not include Schengen — a distinction every prospective applicant must understand clearly before investing.
Vanuatu
Vanuatu's Development Support Programme (DSP) remains the fastest citizenship by investment programme in the world — 45 to 60 days from application to passport. At $130,000 for a single applicant, it is also among the most accessible. However, following the European Council's revocation of Schengen visa-free access in December 2024, the Vanuatu passport's travel reach has been meaningfully reduced. We present the full picture.
Residency by Investment — Golden Visas
These programmes grant long-term or permanent residency rights in exchange for a qualifying investment. Several offer a pathway to full citizenship after meeting residency and language requirements.
Albania
Albania is developing a formal investor residency framework as part of its EU accession process, offering internationally mobile investors a low-cost Balkans base with Mediterranean lifestyle, low personal taxes, and proximity to Italy and Greece.
Full programme details
Andorra
Andorra's passive residency programme combines Europe's most competitive personal tax rates — income tax capped at 10%, no wealth tax, no inheritance tax — with a Schengen-adjacent location and exceptional quality of life. Following the Omnibus 2 Law (in force February 2026), the programme requires a €1,000,000 qualifying investment (reduced to €400,000 if made via the Andorran Housing Fund) plus a non-refundable AFA payment; it suits high earners seeking legitimate European tax efficiency without EU residency requirements.
Full programme details
Anguilla
Anguilla's high-value residency programme offers a Caribbean tax haven base within a British Overseas Territory — ideal for HNWI clients seeking zero direct taxation and British legal standards without relocating to Europe.
Full programme details
Argentina
Argentina's investor and rentista residency categories offer internationally mobile investors a pathway to permanent residency in South America's second-largest economy — and, ultimately, to one of the world's most powerful passports.
Full programme details
Armenia
Armenia offers a straightforward residency by investment pathway with low minimum thresholds, a flat 20% income tax, and growing appeal as a tech and startup hub.
Full programme details
Australia
Australia's Business Talent visa (Subclass 132) was closed to new applications on 1 July 2021. This guide explains the now-discontinued programme and the current investor and talent pathways that replaced it.
Full programme detailsAustralia
Australia's Global Talent visa (subclass 858) grants permanent residency to internationally recognised leaders in targeted sectors, offering a streamlined alternative to capital-intensive investor visa routes.
Full programme detailsAustralia
Australia's Significant Investor Visa (Subclass 188C) was closed to new applications on 31 July 2024. This guide explains the now-discontinued programme and the current talent-led pathway that replaced Australia's investor migration routes.
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Austria
Austria offers HNW individuals residence in one of Europe's most prestigious addresses — Vienna, Salzburg, or the Alpine regions. Note: Austria does not operate a Swiss-style negotiated lump-sum tax regime; this guide explains what Austria actually offers and how it compares.
Full programme detailsAustria
Austria offers residency pathways for non-EU investors through the Red-White-Red Card for key workers and investors, as well as the highly regarded lump-sum taxation arrangement — providing access to one of Europe's most prestigious, stable, and centrally located countries.
Full programme details
Azerbaijan
A guide to Azerbaijan's investor residency pathways, including the long-stay visa options, real estate and business investment routes, and what HNW individuals should know about the South Caucasus' wealthiest and most accessible investment jurisdiction.
Full programme details
Bahrain
Bahrain's Golden Residency Visa offers internationally mobile investors a low-cost, flexible long-term residency in the Gulf with no personal income tax and genuine economic substance opportunities.
Full programme details
Barbados
A complete guide to Barbados residency options for HNW individuals, including the Welcome Stamp remote worker visa, long-term high-value residency, investment pathways, and what one of the Caribbean's most prestigious addresses offers for wealth planning and lifestyle.
Full programme details
Belgium
Belgium offers non-EU investors and entrepreneurs residency through its Professional Card system for the self-employed, providing access to the EU's de facto capital, a highly connected business environment, and a pathway to Belgian and EU citizenship.
Full programme details
Belize
A complete guide to Belize's Qualified Retired Persons (QRP) programme — one of Central America's most accessible long-stay residency options for retirees and semi-retired professionals, open from age 40 with a modest income test and significant lifestyle benefits.
Full programme details
Bermuda
Bermuda's Global Citizen Certificate and economic investment pathways offer residency in a British Overseas Territory with zero income tax, zero capital gains tax, and direct access to one of the world's leading reinsurance and financial centres.
Full programme details
Bolivia
Bolivia's investor and income-based residency categories offer internationally mobile individuals access to one of South America's most resource-rich countries at low investment thresholds, with no personal income tax on foreign-source income.
Full programme details
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina offers non-nationals residency through business investment, with a unique dual-entity constitutional structure, EU candidate status, and one of Europe's lowest income tax rates at 10%.
Full programme details
Botswana
Botswana offers investor residency through its business and work permit framework, providing access to one of Africa's wealthiest, most stable, and best-governed nations with a thriving diamond economy and growing financial services sector.
Full programme details
Brazil
Brazil's investor residency programme under Resolution No. 45/2023 provides a pathway from temporary residence to permanent residency and ultimately to Brazilian citizenship. With Latin America's largest economy, a Schengen-access passport, and options from R$500,000, Brazil is a serious option for South American residency planning.
Full programme details
British Virgin Islands
The British Virgin Islands offer long-term residency for substantial investors in one of the world's most significant offshore financial and corporate domicile centres, with zero income tax, zero capital gains tax, and a Caribbean island lifestyle under British governance.
Full programme details
Brunei Darussalam
Brunei Darussalam offers a long-term residency pathway for qualifying foreign investors and skilled individuals, providing access to one of the world's wealthiest and most stable nations on Borneo.
Full programme details
Bulgaria
Bulgaria offers non-EU nationals a structured route to EU long-term residency through qualifying investments, providing Schengen-adjacent status and an eventual EU citizenship pathway.
Full programme details
Cambodia
Cambodia's My 2nd Home (CM2H) programme and business investment routes offer affordable long-term residency options in one of Southeast Asia's fastest-developing economies.
Full programme detailsCambodia
Cambodia does not have a structured golden visa programme but offers foreign investors several pathways to long-term residency through business establishment, property ownership, and the ER (ordinary resident) visa. A territorial tax system, a dollarised economy, and among the lowest costs of living in Southeast Asia make Cambodia an emerging option for investors considering the region.
Full programme details
Canada
Canada offers several investor and entrepreneur immigration pathways including the Quebec Immigrant Investor Programme, provincial business streams, and the Self-Employed Persons Programme, providing permanent residency and a pathway to one of the world's most respected citizenships.
Full programme detailsCanada
Canada's Provincial Nominee Programme (Business) streams allow non-Canadian investors and entrepreneurs to obtain permanent residency through qualifying business investment or ownership in specific Canadian provinces — with each province offering distinct thresholds and target sectors.
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Cape Verde
A comprehensive guide to Cape Verde's residency by investment pathways for HNW individuals, including real estate and business investment routes, the growing tourism economy, and what the Atlantic archipelago offers as a second home or retirement base.
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Cayman Islands
The Cayman Islands offers two principal residency-by-investment routes — a 25-year Residency Certificate (CI$1m / USD 1.2m, no right to work) and a lifetime Certificate of Permanent Residence (CI$2m / USD 2.4m, work rights available) — in a zero-tax British Overseas Territory, with a possible pathway to BOTC and ultimately British citizenship for qualifying long-term residents.
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Chile
A comprehensive guide to Chile's residency by investment and entrepreneur visa pathways — South America's most stable and investor-friendly jurisdiction, with a clear route to permanent residency and one of the continent's most powerful passports.
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Colombia
Colombia offers investor residency through business investment (around USD 35,000) or real estate (around USD 170,000), with a clear five-year path to permanent residency and citizenship. A digital nomad visa and rentista route provide additional options. This guide covers all routes for internationally mobile investors.
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Cook Islands
The Cook Islands offers residency options for retirees, investors, and individuals with passive income who wish to establish a Pacific base in this self-governing New Zealand-associated archipelago.
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Costa Rica
Costa Rica offers investor and passive income residency pathways that provide long-term legal residence in one of Central America's most stable, democratic, and environmentally stunning countries.
Full programme detailsCosta Rica
Costa Rica has welcomed foreign residents through income-based visa programmes for decades. The Pensionado (pension income) and Rentista (passive offshore income) routes offer accessible residency without a minimum property investment — particularly appealing to retirees and those with regular income from abroad.
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Croatia
Croatia was among the first EU countries to formalise a digital nomad visa, allowing remote workers and independent earners to reside in the country for up to one year. As a full EU member and Schengen country since 2023, Croatia also offers longer-term residency options for investors and those of independent means, with access to one of Europe's most beautiful coastlines.
Full programme details
Curaçao
Curaçao's investor residency programme offers access to a stable Dutch Kingdom jurisdiction in the southern Caribbean, with a territorial tax system, extensive treaty network, and strategic proximity to South American markets.
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Cyprus
Cyprus's non-domiciled resident regime, combined with the 60-day physical presence rule, offers internationally mobile investors exemption from tax on dividends and interest income, zero inheritance tax, and an EU-compliant structure requiring only 60 days in Cyprus per year.
Full programme detailsCyprus
Cyprus fast-track Permanent Residency under Regulation 6(2) is one of the most practically useful residency-by-investment programmes in Europe. A minimum €300,000 property purchase plus €50,000/year overseas income grants permanent, never-expiring residence rights in an EU member state, with no minimum stay obligation and the option to become a Cyprus tax resident under the highly favourable non-domicile regime.
Czech Republic
The Czech Republic's long-term investor visa enables non-EU nationals to secure EU Schengen residency through qualifying business investment in one of Central Europe's most prosperous economies.
Full programme detailsCzech Republic
A comprehensive guide to Czech Republic residency by investment pathways for HNW individuals, including the business investment route, Schengen and EU freedom of movement access, the path to one of Europe's most powerful passports, and life in Central Europe's most visited capital.
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Denmark
Denmark does not operate a passive golden-visa programme. Non-EU nationals reach Danish residency mainly through the Start-up Denmark scheme — establishing an innovative business approved by an expert panel — in one of the world's most stable, innovative and high-quality economies.
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Dominican Republic
The Dominican Republic is the Caribbean's largest economy and one of its fastest-growing property markets. An investor residency route — available through qualifying real estate purchase — offers a path to one of the Caribbean's most useful passports, visa-free access to 140+ countries, and a territorial tax system that leaves foreign income untouched.
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Ecuador
Ecuador is a dollarised economy — no currency risk for USD holders — with one of the most affordable high-quality lifestyles in South America. Investor residency is available from a $100,000 property purchase or bank deposit, with permanent residency after 21 months and citizenship after a further three years. Note that Ecuador taxes residents on worldwide income, so pre-departure tax planning is essential.
Full programme detailsEgypt
Egypt's Golden Residency programme offers 3, 5, and 10-year renewable permits to investors via real estate purchase, bank deposit, or business establishment, with residency available from a USD 100,000 qualifying investment.
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El Salvador
El Salvador's residency-by-investment programme offers rapid processing, no tax on foreign-source income, and a unique position as the world's first country to adopt Bitcoin as legal tender — making it a notable option for digital asset investors and entrepreneurs.
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Estonia
Estonia's e-Residency enables global entrepreneurs to operate an EU-registered company from anywhere. Combined with a physical residency visa, it is a distinctive route into the European single market.
Full programme detailsEstonia
Estonia's Startup Visa and long-term residency framework offers technology founders and digital entrepreneurs EU Schengen residency, backed by Europe's most advanced digital governance infrastructure and a thriving startup ecosystem.
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Ethiopia
Ethiopia's investment residency framework offers foreign investors access to Africa's second-most-populous economy, with a clear legal basis and improving infrastructure.
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Fiji
Fiji's investor and long-term resident visa routes offer residency in one of the Pacific's most stable island nations. With direct flights from Australia, New Zealand, the US, and the UK, and a thriving luxury resort property market, Fiji appeals to lifestyle and investment-motivated applicants alike.
Full programme detailsFiji
Fiji offers foreign nationals several residency pathways through qualifying investment in tourism, agriculture, or business, making it one of the few Pacific island nations with a structured investment-linked residency option.
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Finland
Finland offers residency pathways for non-EU entrepreneurs and investors through its startup permit and self-employment residence permit, providing access to a highly digitalised, innovation-led Nordic economy with one of Europe's most sought-after quality of life environments.
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Georgia
Georgia's investment residency programme offers a flat 20% income tax, 365-day visa-free access for most nationalities, and one of the world's fastest company registration processes.
Full programme detailsGeorgia
Georgia's Virtual Zone programme offers IT companies 0% corporate income tax on international income, combined with a flat 20% personal income tax and one of the most accessible residency frameworks in the wider European region.
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Germany
Germany's Section 21 residence permit allows non-EU entrepreneurs and investors to establish or acquire a business in Germany and obtain residency — offering access to Europe's largest economy and a long-term pathway to German citizenship.
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Ghana
Ghana's investor residency permit provides foreign nationals with the right to live and work in West Africa's most stable democracy, tied to qualifying business investment.
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Greece
Greece's golden visa is one of Europe's most accessible pathways to EU residency, with real estate investment available from €250,000 for qualifying conversions and heritage restorations, €400,000 across most of Greece, and €800,000 in Athens, Thessaloniki, and key tourist islands. Fast processing, zero minimum time in Greece, and a seven-year path to Greek and EU citizenship.
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Guatemala
Guatemala's investor residency categories offer internationally mobile individuals access to Central America's largest economy, a UNESCO World Heritage colonial city, and a Mayan highland culture unlike anywhere else in the region.
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Guyana
Guyana's investor residency pathway offers access to the Western Hemisphere's fastest-growing economy, driven by the largest offshore oil discovery of the past decade, within an English-speaking Commonwealth framework.
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Honduras
Honduras offers internationally mobile investors and retirees an accessible Central American residency with attractive customs concessions, widespread use of the US Dollar alongside the lempira, and exceptional natural assets including the Bay Islands' world-class diving.
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Hong Kong
Hong Kong's relaunched Capital Investment Entrant Scheme offers a pathway to permanent residency in Asia's premier financial centre, through a HKD 30 million investment in approved Hong Kong assets — for clients seeking a foothold in the world's most internationalised Asian city.
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Hungary
Hungary relaunched its residency-by-investment route in 2024 under the Guest Investor Programme, offering EU-adjacent residency through real estate investment funds or a higher-education donation.
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Indonesia
Indonesia's KITAS investor category provides a renewable residency permit for foreign nationals making qualifying capital investments in Indonesian companies, offering a gateway to Southeast Asia's largest economy.
Full programme detailsIndonesia
Indonesia's Second Home Visa offers 10-year renewable residency in exchange for a USD 130,000 deposit held in an Indonesian bank, or proof of property ownership. It opens access to one of Southeast Asia's most dynamic economies and iconic lifestyle destinations — Bali, Jakarta, Lombok — without requiring employment.
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Ireland
Ireland's Immigrant Investor Programme granted residency to non-EEA investors who committed qualifying capital to Irish enterprises, bonds, or endowments — though the programme closed to new applications in February 2023, with alternative pathways now emerging.
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Israel
Israel offers two distinct residency pathways: the Law of Return for those with Jewish heritage (one of the world's most significant citizenship-by-right schemes), and a general investor residency route for qualified foreign investors. This guide covers both pathways, the tax implications of Israeli residency, and the role of Israel's startup ecosystem in attracting global investment talent.
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Italy
Italy's Regime dei Nuovi Residenti charges a flat €300,000 per year (from 2026, up from €100,000) on all foreign-source income, regardless of amount. At large overseas income levels, this creates an exceptionally low effective tax rate — 3% at €10 million, 1.5% at €20 million. Combined with Italy's cultural richness and quality of life, the regime suits very high-net-worth individuals with substantial international income.
Full programme detailsItaly
Italy's Investor Visa grants two-year residency to non-EU nationals who commit qualifying capital into Italian government bonds, companies, startups, or philanthropic initiatives — with a clear path to permanent residency and citizenship.
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Jamaica
Jamaica offers internationally mobile investors and retirees two distinct pathways to long-term residency through JAMPRO's investor facilitation framework and the Qualified Retirement Programme.
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Japan
Japan's Highly Skilled Professional visa offers an accelerated permanent residency pathway for qualified investors, entrepreneurs, and specialists, with permanent residency available in as little as one year for top-scoring applicants.
Full programme detailsJapan
Japan offers structured immigration routes for investors and highly skilled professionals through the Business Manager Visa and the Highly Skilled Professional (HSP) points system. HSP holders scoring 80+ points can achieve permanent residency in just one year — among the fastest PR timelines globally. One of the world's largest economies, at historically competitive JPY valuations, it presents compelling opportunities for internationally mobile investors.
Full programme detailsJordan
Jordan's investor residency routes offer qualifying foreign nationals long-term residency through real estate investment, bank deposits, or business establishment, with access to a stable Middle Eastern hub, Jordan's special economic zones, and a modest tax environment.
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Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan offers investor residency through business investment and a growing special economic zone framework, positioned as Central Asia's most significant economy and the region's leading financial centre at the Astana International Financial Centre.
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Kenya
Kenya is East Africa's dominant financial hub, home to Nairobi's 'Silicon Savannah' tech ecosystem and a dynamic property market. The Class G investor permit provides residency rights for investors meeting the minimum USD 100,000 investment threshold. With a UK-Kenya DTA in place, improving governance, and strong rental yields in Nairobi's prime residential market, Kenya merits attention as an emerging-market investment residency option.
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Kosovo
Kosovo — Europe's youngest and newest state — offers internationally mobile investors a low-cost Western Balkans residency through business investment, with a flat 10% income tax rate and a rapidly developing economy.
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Kuwait
Kuwait offers residency pathways for investors and business owners with access to zero personal income tax, GCC banking infrastructure, and a strategic Gulf hub location.
Full programme detailsKuwait
Kuwait offers investor residency pathways through the Kuwait Direct Investment Promotion Authority, providing long-term residence rights for foreign nationals who establish and operate qualifying businesses.
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Latvia
Latvia's residency-by-investment programme provides EU residency and Schengen Zone access via real estate investment from €250,000 (plus a 5% state fee), with alternative routes via company equity and a bank deposit. Latvian permanent residency leads to full EU citizenship after a further five years — one of the more accessible routes to an EU passport in the region.
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Liechtenstein
A detailed guide to obtaining residency in Liechtenstein — one of Europe's smallest, wealthiest, and most private jurisdictions — including the legal pathways available, the role of the quota system, tax advantages, and the practical realities for HNW investors.
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Lithuania
Lithuania offers internationally mobile entrepreneurs and remote professionals EU Schengen residency through its startup visa and digital nomad programmes, backed by one of Europe's most progressive digital governance frameworks.
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Luxembourg
Luxembourg offers residency for private investors through the Independent Means route and the Investor category, with no formal minimum investment threshold but high standards of financial documentation. As a founding EU member, Luxembourg provides immediate access to EU residency rights, a world-class financial infrastructure, and one of the world's most powerful passports after naturalisation.
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Malaysia
Malaysia's My Second Home (MM2H) programme offers long-term renewable residency in one of Southeast Asia's most liveable countries. Requirements were tightened in 2021 and revised again in the 2024–2025 restructuring, which moved the fixed-deposit thresholds to a US-dollar basis (USD 150,000 Silver, USD 500,000 Gold, USD 1,000,000 Platinum) and added a lower-cost Special Economic Zone (Forest City) tier.
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Maldives
The Maldives offers long-term residency for property investors in designated integrated tourism developments. For HNW individuals seeking a paradise island base with zero income tax and an ultra-luxury resort environment, the Maldives presents a unique — if niche — proposition.
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Malta
The Malta Permanent Residence Programme offers non-EU nationals a pathway to EU residency through a combined contribution and property commitment, with no minimum stay requirement.
Full programme detailsMauritius
Mauritius offers investor residency from USD 50,000 via the Investor Occupation Permit, alongside the Economic Development Board's Premium Investor Certificate for large-scale, transformative investments.
Full programme detailsMauritius
The Mauritius Premium Visa offers internationally mobile individuals up to one year's renewable long-stay access, serving as a gateway to investor residency in one of Africa's most stable economies.
Full programme detailsMauritius
Mauritius offers multiple routes to long-term residency for investors and HNW individuals: the Premium Visa, the Investor Occupation Permit, and property investment under the PDS and Smart City schemes. With no capital gains tax, no inheritance tax, and a territorial tax system, Mauritius has become Africa's most credible tax-efficient residency destination.
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Mexico
Mexico offers accessible residency by financial solvency, property investment, and business activity. With no minimum stay requirement for permanent residency renewal and a straightforward path to citizenship after five years, Mexico is one of Latin America's most practical residency destinations for HNW individuals.
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Monaco
Monaco residency offers zero personal income tax, no capital gains tax, and one of the world's most prestigious addresses — but requires genuine physical presence, a substantial financial profile, and either property ownership or a long-term rental in one of the world's most expensive real estate markets.
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Montserrat
Montserrat, a British Overseas Territory in the Eastern Caribbean, offers a distinctive long-term residency pathway for investors and retirees seeking a genuinely secluded, secure, and tax-efficient island base.
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Morocco
Morocco's investor residency framework offers internationally mobile HNW individuals a strategically located, culturally rich base on the Atlantic and Mediterranean with growing financial services infrastructure and no wealth tax.
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Myanmar
Myanmar's investor visa framework allows foreign nationals who establish qualifying businesses to obtain long-term residency in Southeast Asia's most resource-rich frontier market — though the current political environment demands careful due diligence.
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Namibia
Namibia offers residency pathways for retirees and investors through its Retirement Annuitant Permit and business investment permits, providing access to one of southern Africa's most stable, well-governed, and naturally spectacular nations.
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Netherlands
The Netherlands offers residency pathways for non-EU investors and entrepreneurs through its startup visa, self-employment residence permit, and the Dutch-American Friendship Treaty (DAFT) — providing access to one of Europe's most international business environments.
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New Zealand
New Zealand's Active Investor Plus Visa, substantially revised in April 2025, offers a Growth category (from NZD 5 million in higher-risk active investments over three years, 21 days' presence) and a Balanced category (from NZD 10 million in mixed assets over five years, 105 days' presence). It leads to permanent residency and eventually New Zealand citizenship — a top-five global passport — in a stable, English-speaking country with a distinctive 4-year transitional residency tax concession for new immigrants.
Full programme detailsNew Zealand
The Long Term Business Visa is a historical New Zealand category (closed to new applications in December 2013). This guide explains how the entrepreneur/business-investor pathway has evolved — including the Business Investor Visa introduced in November 2025 — for overseas entrepreneurs and investors seeking to build or invest in New Zealand businesses and progress to residence.
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Nicaragua
Nicaragua's investor residency framework offers some of Central America's most accessible thresholds, generous customs concessions, and a Pacific coast property market at price points well below comparable destinations — though investors must carefully assess the current political environment.
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Nigeria
Nigeria's Subject to Regularisation (STR) visa and Combined Expatriate Residence Permit and Aliens Card (CERPAC) provide the legal basis for foreign investors to live and operate in Africa's most populous nation and largest economy.
Full programme detailsNorth Macedonia
North Macedonia offers non-nationals a structured investor residency pathway through business investment, backed by EU candidate status, flat 10% income and corporate taxes, and a strategic Western Balkans location.
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Norway
Norway offers non-EEA investors and entrepreneurs residency through its independent business residence permit, providing access to one of the world's wealthiest and most stable economies — outside the EU but fully integrated into the Schengen area.
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Oman
Oman's Integrated Tourism Complex (ITC) programme allows foreign nationals to purchase freehold property within government-approved mixed-use developments and qualify for 10-year renewable residency. With no personal income tax, no capital gains tax, and a rapidly developing infrastructure, Oman offers a quieter, more affordable alternative to Dubai for Middle East residency.
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Panama
Panama's Friendly Nations Visa is one of the most accessible residency programmes for UK nationals, offering a clear path to permanent residency and ultimately citizenship, with no personal income tax on foreign-source earnings and a strategic location bridging the Americas.
Full programme detailsPanama
Panama's Qualified Investor Visa offers residency to high-net-worth individuals investing $300,000+ in real estate, securities, or a fixed-term deposit, with access to Panama's territorial tax system, no tax on foreign income, and one of Latin America's most stable banking systems.
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Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea offers residency options for foreign investors who commit capital to qualifying industries in the Pacific's most resource-rich nation, a frontier market with significant long-term investment potential.
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Peru
Peru offers investor residency to foreign nationals who make qualifying investments in Peruvian enterprises or property, providing access to one of South America's fastest-growing economies with a rapid path to citizenship.
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Philippines
The Philippines SIRV grants permanent residency to foreign investors who commit qualifying capital to approved investment vehicles, offering a pathway to long-term residence in one of Southeast Asia's most populous and English-speaking nations.
Full programme detailsPhilippines
The Philippines SRRV offers indefinite, multiple-entry residency for retirees and investors through a refundable time deposit (from USD 15,000) held in the Philippines. With no minimum stay requirement, condominium ownership rights, and access to one of Southeast Asia's most vibrant and English-speaking societies, the SRRV is one of the region's most accessible long-term visa options. Note: the programme was restructured in September 2025.
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Poland
Poland offers non-EU nationals EU Schengen residency through business investment and commercial activity, providing access to the EU's sixth-largest economy and a pathway to EU citizenship.
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Portugal
Portugal's D7 Passive Income Visa offers EU residency for individuals with sufficient foreign-source income — without the €500,000 fund commitment of the Golden Visa. Ideal for retirees, investors living on dividends, and digital professionals seeking a low-cost EU base.
Full programme detailsPortugal
Portugal's Golden Visa remains one of Europe's most sought-after residency programmes, offering a clear path to an EU passport with as few as seven days' physical presence per year. The residential property route closed in October 2023, but four active investment routes — including qualifying funds from €500,000 and cultural contributions from €250,000 — continue to attract investors from across the globe.
Portugal
Portugal's Non-Habitual Resident (NHR) tax regime was replaced by the IFICI programme from January 2024 for new applicants. Existing NHR holders retain their status for the full 10-year period. IFICI (NHR 2.0) targets qualified professionals in innovation, technology, and research, with a 20% flat rate on qualifying Portuguese-source income. This guide explains what each regime covers, who qualifies, and how to combine Portugal's tax residency advantages with the amended Golden Visa.
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Qatar
Qatar's residency by investment programme is a straightforward proposition: purchase qualifying freehold property in a designated development and receive a renewable residency permit. It is a solid option for investors who want a Gulf base, particularly those with business interests in the region — but it carries no path to Qatari citizenship, and for travel document purposes, the UAE Golden Visa is stronger for most investors.
Romania
Romania offers non-EU nationals a credible EU residency pathway through investment and business activity, with one of the most accessible cost structures among EU member states.
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Rwanda
Rwanda's investment residency programme offers a gateway to East Africa's fastest-growing economy, with a clear legal framework and a reputation for transparency.
Full programme detailsSamoa
Samoa's investor residency pathway allows foreign nationals to establish a business presence and obtain long-term residency in this strategically positioned Pacific nation, distinct from the separate citizenship programme.
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San Marino
San Marino — the world's oldest republic, entirely surrounded by Italy — offers residency to non-EU investors and high-net-worth individuals through qualifying economic activity or investment, with competitive tax rates and a unique lifestyle proposition in the heart of central Italy.
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Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia's Premium Residency offers qualifying investors and professionals work rights without employer sponsorship, no personal income tax, and long-term stability in one of the world's largest economies — central to Vision 2030.
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Senegal
Senegal offers residency pathways for foreign investors through its APIX investment registration framework, positioning Dakar as West Africa's most stable, cosmopolitan, and increasingly technology-oriented business destination.
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Serbia
Serbia offers internationally mobile investors one of Europe's most accessible and cost-effective residency pathways — outside the EU but strategically positioned, with a flat 15% income tax and no minimum stay requirement.
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Seychelles
A guide to Seychelles residency by investment options, including the Gainful Occupation Permit and long-stay pathways available to HNW individuals seeking residency in one of the Indian Ocean's most exclusive and naturally extraordinary archipelagos.
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Singapore
Singapore's Global Investor Programme grants permanent residency to qualified investors who commit S$10 million to a new or existing business or S$25 million to an approved GIP-select fund, offering world-class banking, zero capital gains tax, and a gateway to Asian markets.
Full programme detailsSingapore
Singapore's ONE Pass is a five-year open work visa for exceptional individuals earning at least SGD 30,000 per month or holding outstanding achievements, offering unmatched flexibility in Asia's premier financial hub.
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Slovakia
A guide to Slovakia's residency by investment pathways for HNW individuals, including business investment and entrepreneurial routes, EU freedom of movement implications, access to Slovakia's Schengen Area membership, and lifestyle considerations in Central Europe's underrated gem.
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South Africa
South Africa's Retired Persons Visa requires either ZAR 37,000 per month in pension income or a ZAR 1.5 million lump-sum investment in an approved financial product. This guide covers the requirements, tax implications, property ownership rights, and an honest assessment of living in South Africa today.
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South Korea
South Korea's F-2 points-based residency system offers long-term residency rights to high-scoring foreign nationals, providing a pathway to settlement in one of Asia's most advanced economies.
Full programme detailsSouth Korea
A complete guide to South Korea's investor immigration programmes, including the Public Fund Investment route to F-5 permanent residency, eligibility requirements, and the implications of South Korea's strict dual-citizenship policy.
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Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka's Individual Investor Residence Visa, rolled out from October 2025, offers a five-year residence permit from USD 100,000 (or a ten-year permit from USD 200,000) in qualifying investment, including approved real estate, business, or qualifying deposits and securities. Having emerged from the severe 2022 economic crisis under an IMF stabilisation programme, Sri Lanka presents a potentially contrarian investment opportunity in a country with genuine natural assets, strong Indian Ocean positioning, and a recovering tourism sector.
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Sweden
Sweden offers non-EU entrepreneurs and investors residency through its business-owner and self-employment residence permit, granting access to one of Europe's most innovative economies, a high quality of life, and a pathway to one of the world's most respected passports.
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Switzerland
Switzerland offers no formal citizenship-by-investment programme, but wealthy foreign nationals who take up residence without working in Switzerland can negotiate a fixed annual tax bill with the cantonal authority — assessed on living expenses rather than actual income. For ultra-high-net-worth individuals, this Lump Sum Tax arrangement creates one of the lowest effective tax rates in Europe, combined with Swiss permit security, Schengen mobility, and world-class infrastructure.
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Taiwan
Taiwan's Employment Gold Card is a 4-in-1 residence permit for globally mobile professionals across eight sectors. It offers a 3-year multiple-entry residence right, the ability to work for any employer or self-employed, and a significant tax advantage: a five-year concession that halves tax on high Taiwan salary income and shelters overseas income from the AMT for qualifying first-time professionals.
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Tanzania
Tanzania's investor residence permit provides access to East Africa's most politically stable economy, with world-class tourism assets and a growing manufacturing base.
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Thailand
Thailand offers two distinct long-term residency routes for internationally mobile individuals: the Thailand Privilege Card (a fee-based privilege visa of 5–20 years) and the Long-Term Resident (LTR) Visa launched in 2022 for wealthy individuals and professionals. Neither provides a path to citizenship, but both offer extended residency in one of Southeast Asia's most popular destinations, with careful tax planning required on overseas income remitted to Thailand.
Full programme detailsThailand
Thailand's Long-Term Resident visa offers a renewable 10-year residency pathway for wealthy global citizens, retirees, remote professionals, and investors seeking a Southeast Asian base.
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The Bahamas
A complete guide to the Bahamas' investment residency pathways — principally Economic Permanent Residency via qualifying property investment — with eligibility requirements, tax benefits, and lifestyle considerations for HNW investors considering the Caribbean's wealthiest jurisdiction.
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Tonga
Tonga offers a Business Investor Visa for foreign nationals who establish qualifying commercial operations in the Kingdom, providing a residency pathway in one of the Pacific's most distinctive and stable constitutional monarchies.
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Trinidad and Tobago
Trinidad and Tobago's investor residency offers access to the Caribbean's wealthiest economy, a sophisticated financial services sector, and a strategic base between North America, South America, and the wider Caribbean.
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Tunisia
Tunisia offers accessible residency pathways for foreign investors and retirees through its investment framework and long-stay visa system, combining Mediterranean living standards with competitive costs and proximity to Europe.
Full programme detailsTurkey
Turkey offers a flexible residency pathway for property investors, with routes to long-term residency and, separately, citizenship through real estate purchases starting from $200,000.
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Turks and Caicos Islands
A complete guide to the Turks and Caicos Islands' residency by investment programme, including the Permanent Residency Certificate, investment thresholds, tax advantages, and what HNW investors need to know about this British Overseas Territory.
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USA
The US E-2 Treaty Investor Visa allows nationals of treaty countries to live and work in the United States by investing in and managing a US business, with renewable status, no minimum investment floor, and a faster processing timeline than the EB-5 green card route.
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Uganda
Uganda's Class G Investor Permit provides long-term residency rights to qualifying foreign nationals who establish or invest in licensed Ugandan enterprises, granting access to a rapidly growing East African market.
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Ukraine
Ukraine's residency-by-investment programme is functionally suspended during the ongoing conflict. This page sets out the pre-war programme framework, current status, and the post-conflict reconstruction opportunity that may make a future Ukrainian residency or passport strategically significant — particularly given Ukraine's ongoing EU accession process.
Full programme details
United Arab Emirates
Abu Dhabi offers a distinct investor residency environment from Dubai, anchored by the Abu Dhabi Investment Office and the emirate's 2030 economic diversification agenda.
Full programme detailsUnited Arab Emirates
The UAE Golden Visa grants a renewable 10-year residence permit to property investors, company investors, and skilled professionals. There is no path to UAE citizenship by investment. The programme's appeal is different: it offers long-term residency in a zero income tax, zero capital gains tax jurisdiction, with straightforward banking, excellent infrastructure, and rapid processing.
United Kingdom
The UK's High Potential Individual (HPI) visa offers a 2–3 year right to live and work in the UK for graduates of the world's top 50 universities, with no job offer required. For internationally mobile investors and professionals, it provides a straightforward entry point to the UK — and a potential path to Indefinite Leave to Remain.
Full programme detailsUnited States
The EB-5 programme offers a structured route to a US green card — and ultimately citizenship — through a qualifying investment starting at $800,000 in a Targeted Employment Area. Processing backlogs remain significant, but for the right applicant, no other programme delivers what EB-5 delivers: full US permanent residency.
Uruguay
Uruguay offers one of South America's most accessible and respected residency programmes, with no minimum investment requirement for the basic legal-residency route and a compelling territorial tax system for new residents. Citizenship is available after three to five years. This guide covers all routes and the tax advantages for HNW investors.
Full programme detailsVanuatu
Beyond its citizenship programme, Vanuatu offers long-term residency options for foreign nationals with passive income or remote-working arrangements, making it one of the Pacific's most accessible zero-tax residency destinations.
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Vietnam
Vietnam offers investor visas and long-term residency through business investment, providing access to one of Asia's fastest-growing economies with a rapidly expanding middle class and dynamic property market.
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Zambia
Zambia's investor permit provides foreign nationals with long-term residency rights tied to qualifying business investment, granting access to a resource-rich, increasingly diversified economy at the heart of southern Africa.
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Check your eligibility in minutes
Our interactive eligibility tools assess your position against each programme's requirements — investment amount, background, residency intentions, and family size.
- Compare programmes against your goals and budget
- Estimate your timeline to a passport or residency
- Understand 2024–2026 threshold rule changes
- No obligation — answers in minutes
Take an interactive test
Each tool checks your position against a programme's requirements — investment amount, background, residency intentions, and family size — in just a few minutes.
Caribbean CBI Eligibility
Compare all 5 Caribbean programmes and see which suits your goals, budget, and passport objectives.
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Portugal Golden Visa Eligibility
Check whether you qualify for Portugal's fund or cultural investment route and estimate your timeline.
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Greece Golden Visa Eligibility
See whether your planned property investment meets the 2024 threshold rules for Athens, Mykonos, or other regions.
Take the test
UAE Golden Visa Eligibility
Check eligibility across UAE's property, professional talent, and investor routes for a 10-year residence visa.
Take the test
EB-5 Investor Visa Eligibility
Assess your eligibility for the US EB-5 programme by investment amount, project type, and job creation requirements.
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Canada Start-up Visa Eligibility
Assess your business and funding eligibility for Canada's Start-up Visa and pathway to permanent residency.
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Malta MEIN — Abolished
Malta's investor citizenship programme was struck down by the European Court of Justice in April 2025. See our full guide to the history and current EU alternatives.
Take the testTax & residency tests
Where you are tax-resident shapes what a second residency or passport is actually worth. Work through the day-count and tie-breaker rules for the programmes above — plus the UK tests that matter most to British expats.
Tax Residency Tests
Day-count and tie-breaker residency tests for 20+ countries, gathered in one place.
Open PortugalPortugal Tax Residency Test
Portugal's 183-day test runs on a rolling 12-month window — check where you stand.
Open UAEUAE Tax Residency Test
The UAE has three routes to tax residency, but only one supports a treaty certificate.
Open CyprusCyprus Tax Residence Test
Cyprus offers a 60-day route alongside the 183-day rule, relaxed further by the 2026 reform.
Open ItalyItaly Tax Residence Test
Italy's 2024 reform redefined residence around family life rather than economic interests.
Open UK · IHTUK Domicile & Long-Term Residence Test
Assess your UK Inheritance Tax exposure now that IHT is residence-based, not domicile-based.
Open UK · SRTUK Statutory Residence Test
Work through HMRC's automatic overseas, automatic UK and sufficient-ties tests, step by step.
OpenAbolished Programmes
These programmes have been discontinued. We maintain comprehensive guides explaining what each offered, why it was abolished, and what the best current alternatives are.
Australia
Australia's Business Innovation and Investment Programme (BIIP) — which underpinned the Subclass 188 visa — and the Business Talent visa (Subclass 132) both closed permanently to new applications on 31 July 2024. This guide explains what replaced them, what current pathways exist for business owners and investors seeking Australian permanent residency in 2026, and what the path to Australian citizenship looks like.
History & alternativesBulgaria
Bulgaria offered one of the few EU citizenship pathways via investment available at a significantly lower price point than Malta or Cyprus. The programme was abolished in March 2022 following years of European Commission pressure over money laundering risks and the principle that EU citizenship should not be commercially available. Bulgaria became a full member of the Schengen Area on 1 January 2025 (air and sea controls were lifted in March 2024, land controls on 1 January 2025), meaning that Bulgarian residency now carries Schengen access — but citizenship by investment is no longer possible.
History & alternativesCanada
Canada's Start-Up Visa Programme closed to new applicants on 31 December 2025, with IRCC citing an overwhelming backlog exceeding 46,000 cases. Applicants holding commitment certificates issued in 2025 had until 30 June 2026 to submit; that window has now closed and IRCC accepts no applications under this route. For those seeking Canadian PR, we outline the routes that remain open and what is known about IRCC's replacement programme.
History & alternativesCyprus
The Cyprus Citizenship by Investment programme was one of Europe's most sought-after routes to an EU passport — and one of its most expensive. It was suspended in November 2020 after an Al Jazeera undercover investigation revealed systemic due diligence failures. The programme no longer exists. Cyprus retains a Permanent Residency by Investment programme, and citizenship is now available only through standard naturalisation after seven years of legal residency.
History & alternativesMalta
Malta's MEIN citizenship by investment programme was wound down in 2025 following the European Court of Justice judgment of 29 April 2025. The structured investment-for-citizenship route no longer accepts new applications. This guide explains what happened, what the new merit-based pathway involves, and which alternative EU citizenship routes our clients are now pursuing.
History & alternativesMalta
Malta's Exceptional Investor Naturalisation (MEIN) programme was the most prestigious citizenship by investment route ever operated anywhere in the world. This guide details how the programme worked, what it cost, who it suited, and why it was abolished by a European Court of Justice judgment in 2025.
History & alternativesMoldova
Moldova's Citizenship by Investment programme was one of the most affordable in the world, requiring a minimum donation of €100,000 to a government fund. It was suspended in 2022 and formally abolished in 2023 as Moldova pursued EU candidate status and faced international pressure over programme integrity. Moldova was granted EU candidate status in June 2022 and opened accession negotiations in 2024. The CBI programme no longer exists.
History & alternativesMontenegro
Montenegro's Citizenship by Investment programme was introduced in 2019 with a fixed window of 2,000 approvals and expired as scheduled on 31 December 2022. The programme offered a Montenegrin passport — providing Schengen-free travel and access to an EU candidate country — for a donation plus real estate investment. No replacement programme has been announced. Montenegro remains an EU candidate country with ongoing accession negotiations.
History & alternativesSpain
Spain formally abolished its Golden Visa programme on 3 April 2025, ending the €500,000 residential property route and all investment-linked residency routes under Organic Law 1/2025. Applications filed before that date continue to be processed under the previous rules. This guide explains the closure, who is affected, and the viable alternatives for investors who want Spanish residency or an EU passport in 2026.
History & alternativesUnited Kingdom
The UK Tier 1 (Investor) Visa was one of the world's most prestigious investor residency programmes, offering a pathway to Indefinite Leave to Remain and British citizenship in exchange for a minimum £2 million investment in UK government bonds or active UK companies. It was abolished abruptly on 17 February 2022, accelerated by the Russia-Ukraine conflict and a long-standing accumulation of money laundering and national security concerns. No direct replacement exists. The UK has no passive investment route to residency or citizenship.
History & alternativesUnderstanding citizenship & residency by investment
A Practical Guide to Using Your Second Passport
When to use which passport, how to manage multiple nationalities at international borders, airline booking practicalities, and the legal obligations every dual national must understand.
ReadAccelerated Citizenship Routes: The Fastest Legitimate Paths to a Second Passport
When time is a factor, understanding which citizenship programmes process applications fastest — and what speed costs in terms of investment, passport quality, and programme integrity — is essential.
ReadAfrican Citizenship and Residency by Investment: An Honest Assessment for 2026
An overview of African CBI and residency-by-investment options — Egypt, Rwanda, Comoros, Djibouti, and Ghana's Right of Abode — covering investment thresholds, passport travel strength, due diligence standards, and a candid assessment of which programmes offer genuine value for HNW internationally mobile individuals.
ReadAntigua & Barbuda Citizenship by Investment 2026
Antigua & Barbuda offers one of the most competitively priced Caribbean CBI programmes, with a family-of-four NDF donation starting at $230,000 and one of the lowest physical presence requirements of any programme. Its UWI tuition fund option is unique among Caribbean programmes.
ReadAntigua and Barbuda Citizenship by Naturalisation: The Long-Stay Route
Antigua and Barbuda offers citizenship by naturalisation after five years of lawful continuous residence — a separate route from the citizenship-by-investment programme that suits a very different type of applicant.
ReadArmenia: Residency, Citizenship by Descent, and the Emerging Investment Destination in the South Caucasus
Armenia has emerged as an unexpected destination for investors, remote workers and diaspora returnees. With a flat 20% income tax, straightforward residency by investment, and citizenship by descent for those of Armenian heritage, this small Caucasus republic offers a distinctive and underexplored set of opportunities.
ReadExplore our other hubs
A second residency or passport rarely sits on its own. These sibling hubs cover the wealth, tax and planning decisions that come with a cross-border move.
Wealth Expatriation
Move and protect your wealth across borders as you change your residency or citizenship.
Visit hubExpat Financial Planning
Tax residency, pensions and estate planning for internationally mobile families, by country.
Visit hubInternational Financial Planning
Wealth management, expat tax planning and estate structuring for globally mobile clients.
Visit hubFree citizenship & residency consultation
Our specialists advise on every active programme — Caribbean CBI, Portugal, Greece, UAE, EB-5, and more. We identify the right route for your goals and manage the process end to end.
Important notice on immigration and investment advice
Citizenship and residency by investment programmes are complex and subject to frequent change. Investment thresholds, eligibility rules, and programme availability can be altered or withdrawn with limited notice. The information on this website reflects our understanding as of 2026 and should not be relied upon as current legal or immigration advice.
All applications should be made with the assistance of a qualified immigration lawyer in the relevant jurisdiction. Global Investments acts as an adviser and coordinator — not as an immigration lawyer. Investment values can fall as well as rise. Past programme availability does not guarantee future availability.